Knowledge is of the following types. Types of knowledge. features of his intellectual activity

Knowledge- the result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness obtained by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective regular connections and relations of the real world. The ambiguity of the term "knowledge":

knowledge as abilities, skills skills based on awareness;

knowledge as cognitively significant information;

knowledge as a relation of man to reality.

Ancient thought answered the question of what knowledge is by comparing it with opinion. It was believed that opinion is based on feeling, therefore it concerns single objects and is characterized by variability and relativity. Unlike opinion, in knowledge not single, but general properties are grasped, due to which knowledge has a universal character and immutability.

Medieval philosophy raised the question of the difference between knowledge and faith. Knowledge was associated with proof inherent in it. Faith does not require proof, and thus fundamentally different from knowledge.

In modern times, under the influence of the successes of the natural sciences, knowledge is understood as scientific knowledge. The concepts of knowledge, truth and science were actually identified.

Modern philosophy is gradually abandoning the identification of knowledge and science. Today, along with science, other types of spiritual activity are considered as relatively independent ways of cognition. In addition to science, there are such types of knowledge as everyday, artistic-figurative, mythological, religious, philosophical, occult, paranormal, meditative.

6. Types of knowledge:

Worldly - is based on common sense (It is empirical in nature. It is based on common sense and everyday consciousness. It is the most important indicative basis for the daily behavior of people, their relationship with each other and with nature. It boils down to stating facts and describing them)

Practical- is built on actions, mastering things, transforming the world

artistic- is built on an image (A holistic display of the world and a person in it. It is built on an image, and not on a concept)

Scientific- is based on concepts (Understanding reality in its past, present and future, reliable generalization of facts. Provides foresight of various phenomena. Reality is clothed in the form of abstract concepts and categories, general principles and laws, which often take on extremely abstract forms)

Rational - a reflection of reality in logical concepts, based on rational thinking

Irrational- reflection of reality in emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, abnormal and paradoxical phenomena; does not obey the laws of logic and science.

Personal (implicit)- depends on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity.

Science concept

The science is a cognitive type of activity of each person, which is aimed at the study and removal of reasonable objective and system-organized knowledge about objects and phenomena occurring in the surrounding world. In the process of this activity, there is an active work on the collection and analysis of specific data, their systematization and synthesis on the basis of the available new knowledge, which makes it possible to carry out scientifically based forecasting for the manifestation of this action in the future. The object of science represents the widest area of ​​reality of the studied phenomena in environment. The subject of science is a part of a specific object under study, i.e. the subject of science is an area of ​​objective reality, which is subsequently studied by science. Thus, the sciences differ from each other only in their subject matter.

The concept of science occupies one of the most important places in philosophy, since it is a form of knowledge of the world. The philosophical vision of the surrounding world must have a concrete idea of ​​science, its development and accessibility.

The concept of science in philosophy consists of:

Its definitions; the objectives of its activities; Ideological basis (basis); Ideas and ideas in the complex; Representations of science itself;

Option No. 3114514

When completing tasks with a short answer, enter in the answer field the number that corresponds to the number of the correct answer, or a number, a word, a sequence of letters (words) or numbers. The answer should be written without spaces or any additional characters. Separate the fractional part from the whole decimal point. Units of measurement are not required. The answers to tasks 1-20 are a number, or a sequence of numbers, or a word (phrase). Write your answers without spaces, commas, or other extra characters. By completing task 29, you can show your knowledge and skills on the content that is more attractive to you. For this purpose, choose only one of the proposed statements (29.1-29.5).

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Write down the missing word in the table.

Answer:

In the row below, find the concept that is generalizing for all the other concepts presented. Write down this word.

Recession, recession, cycle, depression, rise, peak.

Answer:

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, denote types of legal liability.

1) material; 2) disciplinary; 3) judicial; 4) criminal; 5) early; 6) administrative.

Find two terms that “fall out” of the general series, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table.

Answer:

Choose the correct judgments about the functions of art and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) The cognitive function allows you to analyze reality with the help of artistic images.

2) The aesthetic function of art is manifested in anticipation fashion trends in art.

3) According to the hedonistic function, art is meant to give pleasure.

4) The educational function is associated with the process of socialization.

5) The compensatory function reflects the task of predicting the negative manifestations of material culture.

Answer:

Establish a correspondence between the distinguishing features and the types of cognition that they illustrate: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Answer:

At a school conference, a high school student made a report on the social sciences and features of social cognition. However, not all the theses put forward by him turned out to be true. Choose from the provisions he voiced those that characterize the social sciences and features of social cognition, and write down numbers under which they are listed.

1) Sociology is the science of the most general laws of development of nature, society and knowledge.

2) A feature of social cognition is the coincidence of the object and subject of cognition.

3) The resulting social knowledge is inevitably associated with the values ​​and interests of the cognizing individual.

4) Modern social sciences widely use such a method of cognition as an experiment, not being constrained by legal and moral norms.

5) One of the basic principles of social cognition is the need to consider social reality in development.

6) The main task of scientists working in the field of social sciences is not to abstract from their value priorities, but to interpret them into a scientific fact.

Answer:

Choose the correct statements about distinguishing features command economy and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) One of the significant signs of a command economy is the shortage of certain goods, especially consumer goods.

2) Private property in the command-administrative system extends to the means of production and property intended for housekeeping.

3) The economic mechanism is based on directive economic planning.

4) Prices for products are set by the state and, as a rule, do not depend on market conditions.

5) Enterprises independently determine trading partners, including foreign economic ones.

Answer:

Establish a correspondence between the functions of banks and the levels of the banking system: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Answer:

Pharmacy No. 1 of city N is a municipal unitary enterprise. Which of the following in the list corresponds to the distinctive features of this form of business organization? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) The supreme governing body is the general meeting of its members, which decides critical issues activities of the company, including electing permanent executive bodies - the board and / or chairman.

2) The entrepreneur is liable for his obligations with all his property, with the exception of property, which, in accordance with the law, cannot be levied.

3) A commercial organization is not endowed with the right of ownership of the property assigned to it by the owner.

4) The enterprise is not entitled to create another enterprise as a legal entity by transferring to it a part of its property (subsidiary enterprise).

5) The property of the enterprise belongs to it on the right of economic management or on the right of operational management, is indivisible and cannot be distributed among deposits.

6) The profit of the enterprise is distributed among its employees in accordance with their labor participation.

Answer:

Answer:

Choose the correct judgments about social conflict and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) Contradictions between the subjects of the conflict can exist for quite a long period of time and always develop into a conflict.

2) Social conflict is an open confrontation, a clash of two or more subjects (sides) of social interaction.

3) The form of clashes - violent or non-violent - depends on many factors, including whether there are real conditions and opportunities (mechanisms) for non-violent conflict resolution.

4) The cause of the conflict is always a dispute over material resources.

5) According to the content of the problems that caused conflict actions, internal and external conflicts are distinguished.

Answer:

In the course of a sociological survey, citizens of country A answered the question about the payment methods that they most often use. The results obtained (in % of the number of respondents) are presented in the form of a table.

Find in the list the conclusions that can be drawn on the basis of the table, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) About a quarter of total number of respondents uses both cash and non-cash payments equally.

2) Residents of capital cities more often than residents of small towns use non-cash payments.

3) Respondents aged 35 to 44 prefer to pay with a bank card rather than with banknotes.

4) Half of the surveyed villagers pay exclusively with banknotes and coins.

5) Every tenth respondent aged 25 to 34 uses exclusively non-cash payments.

Answer:

Select the correct judgments about the functions of the political elite in a democratic society and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) The strategic function of the political elite is to create the concept of urgent reforms.

2) The political elite controls the politically passive population through power structures and other institutions of coercion.

3) The predictive function of the political elite provides for the implementation of the developed course in practice, the implementation of political decisions.

4) The integrative function is to strengthen the stability of society, the stability of its political and economic systems, unite various segments of the population, harmonize and harmonize social interests.

5) The communicative function provides for the ability to respond to changing moods of various groups, ensure the operation of channels of communication with the masses, study, collect and reflect in the political course the interests and needs of various social strata and groups.

Answer:

Establish a correspondence between the functions and the subjects of state power of the Russian Federation that perform them: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Answer:

The constitution declares Z to be a democratic unitary state with a republican form of government. Which of the following features characterize the state regime Z? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) The Constitution establishes the procedure for electing the highest official of the state.

2) The Parliament of State Z has a unicameral structure.

3) The constituent parts of a unitary state (regions and departments) do not have state sovereignty.

4) The Constitution of State Z enshrined the principle of democracy.

5) The highest value of the state Z is proclaimed a person, his rights and freedoms.

6) A citizen of state Z cannot be deprived of his citizenship or the right to change it.

Answer:

Which of the following applies to the exclusive jurisdiction of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) defense and security

2) issues of ownership, use and disposal of land, subsoil, water and other natural resources

3) delimitation of state property

4) regulation and protection of the rights and freedoms of man and citizen

5) meteorological service, standards, standards, metric system and timekeeping

Answer:

Select the correct judgments about the rights of the employee and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) compensation for harm caused to the employee in connection with the performance of labor duties

2) compulsory social insurance in cases stipulated by federal laws

3) resolution of individual and collective labor disputes

4) fulfillment of established labor standards

5) compliance with the requirements for labor protection and ensuring labor safety

Answer:

Establish a correspondence between the powers and law enforcement agencies in the Russian Federation: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Answer:

The spouses Ekaterina and Peter did not conclude a marriage contract and, upon dissolution of the marriage, did not reach agreement on the division of property. The court brought them to their attention that they could be guided by the legal regime of marital property. Which of the following provisions correspond to this type of matrimonial property regime? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) The joint property of the spouses is the property acquired by them during marriage (common property of the spouses), which includes the income of each of the spouses from labor, entrepreneurial activity.

2) Property that belonged to each of the spouses before marriage, as well as property received by one of the spouses during marriage as a gift, by inheritance or other gratuitous transactions (property of each of the spouses), is joint property.

3) The property of each of the spouses may be recognized as their joint property if it is established that during the period of marriage, at the expense of the common property of the spouses or the property of each of the spouses or the labor of one of the spouses, investments were made that significantly increase the value of this property.

4) The common property of the spouses is also movable and immovable things acquired at the expense of the joint income of the spouses, securities, shares, shares in the capital of commercial organizations.

5) It is allowed to make a transaction by one of the spouses of a transaction on the disposal of the common property of the spouses against the will of the other spouse.

6) Things for individual use (clothing, shoes, etc.), including jewelry and other luxury items, although acquired during the marriage at the expense of the joint funds of the spouses, are recognized as the property of the spouse who used them.

Answer:

Read the text below with a number of words missing.

Each person in the social system occupies several positions. Each of these positions, involving certain rights and ____ (A), is called a status. A person can have multiple statuses. But more often than not, only one determines his position in society. This status is called the main one. It often happens that the main status is due to his ____ (B) (for example, director, professor). Social status is reflected both in the external ____ (B) and appearance (clothing, jargon and other signs of social and professional affiliation), and in the internal position. Social status refers to the specific place that an individual occupies in a given social ____ (D). The totality of the requirements imposed on the individual by society forms the content of the social role, the totality of ___ (D) that a person with this status must fulfill. It breaks down into role expectations and role behavior - what a person actually does within his ____ (E).

The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word can only be used once.

Choose sequentially one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.

List of terms:

The table below lists the letters that represent the missing words. Write in the table under each letter the number of the word you have chosen.

Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Answer:

The author gives three concepts of the state budget. What concept does he consider the most common? Who is its author? How does the author define the traditional attitude to the problem of the state budget deficit?

(according to T.Yu. Matveeva))

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

The attitude to the state budget deficit is usually negative. The most popular idea is a balanced budget. Historically, three concepts have been put forward in relation to the state budget: 1) the idea of ​​an annually balanced budget; 2) the idea of ​​a budget balanced by the phases of the economic cycle (on a cyclical basis); 3) the idea of ​​balancing not the budget, but the economy.

The concept of an annual balanced budget is that, regardless of the phase of the economic cycle, every year budget expenditures should be equal to income. This means that, for example, during a recession, when budget revenues (tax revenues) are minimal, the state must reduce public spending (government purchases and transfers) to ensure a balanced budget. And since the reduction of both government purchases and transfers leads to a decrease in aggregate demand, and, consequently, output, this measure will lead to an even deeper recession. Conversely, if there is a boom in the economy, i.e., maximum tax revenues, then in order to balance budget expenditures with revenues, the state must increase government spending, provoking even more overheating of the economy and, consequently, even higher inflation. Thus, the theoretical inconsistency of such an approach to budget regulation is quite obvious.

The concept of a cyclically balanced state budget is that it is not necessary to have a balanced budget every year. It is important that the budget be balanced as a whole during the economic cycle: the budget surplus, which increases during the boom, when budget revenues are maximum, should be used to finance the budget deficit that occurs during the recession, when budget revenues are sharply reduced. This concept also has a significant drawback.

The concept that the goal of the state should not be the balance of the budget, but the stability of the economy, has become most widespread. This idea was put forward by Keynes in his work "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" (1936) and was actively used in the economies of developed countries until the mid-1970s. According to Keynes's views, the instruments of the state budget (government purchases, taxes and transfers) should be used as counter-cyclical regulators, stabilizing the economy at different phases of the cycle.

(according to T.Yu. Matveeva))

Solutions to tasks with a detailed answer are not checked automatically.
On the next page, you will be asked to check them yourself.

What are the three instruments of the state budget that influence the stabilization of the economy, according to Keynes's concept, does the author name? Based on the text and social science knowledge, name and justify the use of any two methods of state intervention in the regulation of a market economy at different stages of the economic cycle.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

The attitude to the state budget deficit is usually negative. The most popular idea is a balanced budget. Historically, three concepts have been put forward in relation to the state budget: 1) the idea of ​​an annually balanced budget; 2) the idea of ​​a budget balanced by the phases of the economic cycle (on a cyclical basis); 3) the idea of ​​balancing not the budget, but the economy.

The concept of an annual balanced budget is that, regardless of the phase of the economic cycle, every year budget expenditures should be equal to income. This means that, for example, during a recession, when budget revenues (tax revenues) are minimal, the state must reduce public spending (government purchases and transfers) to ensure a balanced budget. And since the reduction of both government purchases and transfers leads to a decrease in aggregate demand, and, consequently, output, this measure will lead to an even deeper recession. Conversely, if there is a boom in the economy, i.e., maximum tax revenues, then in order to balance budget expenditures with revenues, the state must increase government spending, provoking even more overheating of the economy and, consequently, even higher inflation. Thus, the theoretical inconsistency of such an approach to budget regulation is quite obvious.

The concept of a cyclically balanced state budget is that it is not necessary to have a balanced budget every year. It is important that the budget be balanced as a whole during the economic cycle: the budget surplus, which increases during the boom, when budget revenues are maximum, should be used to finance the budget deficit that occurs during the recession, when budget revenues are sharply reduced. This concept also has a significant drawback.

The concept that the goal of the state should not be the balance of the budget, but the stability of the economy, has become most widespread. This idea was put forward by Keynes in his work "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" (1936) and was actively used in the economies of developed countries until the mid-1970s. According to Keynes's views, the instruments of the state budget (government purchases, taxes and transfers) should be used as counter-cyclical regulators, stabilizing the economy at different phases of the cycle.

(according to T.Yu. Matveeva))

Solutions to tasks with a detailed answer are not checked automatically.
On the next page, you will be asked to check them yourself.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

The attitude to the state budget deficit is usually negative. The most popular idea is a balanced budget. Historically, three concepts have been put forward in relation to the state budget: 1) the idea of ​​an annually balanced budget; 2) the idea of ​​a budget balanced by the phases of the economic cycle (on a cyclical basis); 3) the idea of ​​balancing not the budget, but the economy.

The concept of an annual balanced budget is that, regardless of the phase of the economic cycle, every year budget expenditures should be equal to income. This means that, for example, during a recession, when budget revenues (tax revenues) are minimal, the state must reduce public spending (government purchases and transfers) to ensure a balanced budget. And since the reduction of both government purchases and transfers leads to a decrease in aggregate demand, and, consequently, output, this measure will lead to an even deeper recession. Conversely, if there is a boom in the economy, i.e., maximum tax revenues, then in order to balance budget expenditures with revenues, the state must increase government spending, provoking even more overheating of the economy and, consequently, even higher inflation. Thus, the theoretical inconsistency of such an approach to budget regulation is quite obvious.

The concept of a cyclically balanced state budget is that it is not necessary to have a balanced budget every year. It is important that the budget be balanced as a whole during the economic cycle: the budget surplus, which increases during the boom, when budget revenues are maximum, should be used to finance the budget deficit that occurs during the recession, when budget revenues are sharply reduced. This concept also has a significant drawback.

The concept that the goal of the state should not be the balance of the budget, but the stability of the economy, has become most widespread. This idea was put forward by Keynes in his work "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" (1936) and was actively used in the economies of developed countries until the mid-1970s. According to Keynes's views, the instruments of the state budget (government purchases, taxes and transfers) should be used as counter-cyclical regulators, stabilizing the economy at different phases of the cycle.

Solutions to tasks with a detailed answer are not checked automatically.

Solutions to tasks with a detailed answer are not checked automatically.
On the next page, you will be asked to check them yourself.

Choose one of the statements below and write a mini essay based on it.

Formulate, at your own discretion, one or several main ideas of the topic raised by the author and reveal it (them) based on social science knowledge.

To reveal the main idea(s) you have formulated, give reasoning and conclusions using social science knowledge (relevant concepts, theoretical provisions).

To illustrate your main idea(s), theoretical positions, reasoning and conclusions, give at least two social facts/examples from various sources (public life (including media reports), personal social experience (including including books read, movies watched), from various academic subjects.

Each cited fact/example must be formulated in detail and confirm the indicated main idea, theoretical position, reasoning or conclusion/be clearly connected with them. In terms of content, the examples should not be of the same type (they should not duplicate each other).

29.1 Philosophy:“A person must work, work hard, no matter who he is, and in this alone lies the meaning and purpose of his life, his happiness, his delights.” (A.P. Chekhov)

29.2 Economy:"The people who achieve success in the world are those who get up and look for the opportunity they need." (B. Shaw)

29.3 Sociology, social psychology:"The character of the child is a cast from the character of the parents, it develops in response to their character." (E. Fromm)

29.4 Political science:“You can fight the enemy in two ways: firstly, by laws, and secondly, by force. The first way is inherent in man, the second - in the beast. (N. Machiavelli)

Having a certain structure and stages associated with the stages of formation and development of society. Human cognition develops along with the complication practical activities.

Exist different types human knowledge. One of the ancient forms are religious and philosophical. The founder of positivism, O. Comte, in the middle of the 19th century, proposed a concept that reflects the types of knowledge. In his concept, he considered three forms, successively replacing one another.

He considered religious knowledge to be the first form. It is based on individual faith and tradition.

The second form is philosophical knowledge. Based on the author's intuition or other concept and is speculative and rational in nature.

Scientific knowledge is the third form. It is based on fixing facts against the background of a purposeful experiment or observation.

Today, it is obvious that all these types of knowledge develop in parallel and exist in the same way as plants and animals exist in natural conditions.

It also takes place. According to the concept of M. Polanyi, the types of knowledge are classified in accordance with personal characteristics. The English philosopher proceeded from the fact that knowledge is an active comprehension of things - this is an action that requires special tools and special art. In the "personal", according to Polanyi, not only reality is captured, but also the personality with its interest in cognition. In this case, there is a complex not only of any statements, but also of the experiences of the individual. Thus, Polanyi singled out the following types of knowledge:

1. Explicit, articulated, expressed in theories, judgments, concepts.
2. Implicit, implicit, not amenable to full reflection of human experience.

Implicit knowledge is embodied in bodily skills, practical skills, perception schemes. It is not fully reflected in textbooks, but is transmitted through communication and personal contact.

As the main component of the structure general education knowledge is the result of knowing the laws of nature, thinking, society, reality. This result reflects the generalized human experience that has been accumulated in the course of social historical practice.

Educational content includes such types of knowledge as:

1. The main terms and concepts that reflect reality. In addition to everyday reality, they also express
2. Facts of daily reality and science. They are used to defend and prove their ideas.
3. Basic scientific laws. They reveal the relationship between various phenomena and objects.
4. Theories that contain a body of scientific knowledge about a certain system of objects, objects, the relationship between them, as well as methods for predicting and explaining phenomena in a particular
5. Appraisal knowledge. They reflect the norms of attitudes towards various life phenomena.
6. Knowledge of the methods of conducting scientific activities, as well as the history of the acquisition of information.

All of these types have features associated with the functions and technologies used in teaching.

Knowledge can also be:

1. Emotional and rational.
2. Essentialistic (based on the use of quantitative means of analysis) and phenomenological (based on the use of "qualitative" concepts).
3. Theoretical and empirical (experimental).
4. Private scientific and philosophical.
5. Humanities and natural sciences.

From a pedagogical and psychological point of view, the differences between rational (scientific) and sensory (humanitarian) cognition are of greatest interest.

1. Knowledge of the world. Types of human knowledge.

Knowledge is the result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness obtained by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective regular connections and relations of the real world.

Types of knowledge:

Worldly - is built on common sense (It is empirical in nature. It is based on common sense and everyday consciousness. It is the most important indicative basis for the everyday behavior of people, their relationship with each other and with nature. It boils down to stating facts and describing them)

Practical - based on actions, mastering things, transforming the world

Artistic - is built on the image (A holistic display of the world and the person in it. It is built on the image, and not on the concept)

Scientific - is built on concepts (Understanding reality in its past, present and future, reliable generalization of facts. Provides foresight of various phenomena. - Reality is clothed in the form of abstract concepts and categories, general principles and laws, which often acquire extremely abstract shapes)

Rational - a reflection of reality in logical concepts, based on rational thinking

Irrational - a reflection of reality in emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, abnormal and paradoxical phenomena; does not obey the laws of logic and science.

Personal (implicit) - depends on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity

Forms of knowledge:

1 Scientific - objective, systematically organized and justified knowledge

2 Unscientific - disparate, non-systematic knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws

3 Pre-scientific - prototype, prerequisites for scientific knowledge

4 Parascientific - inconsistent with existing scientific knowledge

5 Pseudo-scientific - deliberately using speculation and prejudice

6 Anti-scientific - utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of ​​reality

Cognition is the process of obtaining knowledge. In the process of cognition, there are always two sides: the subject of cognition and the object of cognition. In a narrow sense, the subject of cognition usually means a cognizing person endowed with will and consciousness, in a broad sense - the whole society. The object of cognition, respectively, is either a cognizable object, or, in a broad sense, the entire surrounding world within the boundaries in which individuals and society as a whole interact with it.

Exist two stages of cognitive activity.

On the first one, which is called sensual (sensitive) cognition (from German sensitw - perceived by the senses), a person receives information about objects and phenomena of the surrounding world with the help of the senses.

The forms of sensory cognition are:
a) sensation, which is a reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects of the surrounding world that directly affect the senses;
b) perception, during which a holistic image is formed in the subject of cognition, reflecting objects and their properties that directly affect the senses;
c) representation - such a form of cognition in which the sensory reflection (sensory image) of objects and phenomena is stored in the mind, which allows it to be reproduced mentally even if it is absent and does not affect the senses.
The second stage of cognitive activity is rational knowledge(from lat. ratio - mind). At this stage, relying on the data obtained as a result of the direct interaction of a person with the surrounding worldsm, with the help of thinking, their ordering is carried out and an attempt is made to comprehend the essence of cognizable objects and phenomena.

The forms of rational cognition are:

A) The concept is a form (kind) of thought that reflects the general and essential features of cognizable objects or phenomena.
b) Judgment is a form of thought in which a connection is established between separate concepts and with the help of this connection something is affirmed or denied.
c) Inference is called obtaining new judgments on the basis of existing ones by using the laws of logical thinking.
Rational cognition is closely connected with the reflected reality, that is, with sensory cognition, which serves as the basis for it. However, unlike sensory cognition, which exists in the form of images, the results of rational cognition are fixed in the form of signs or in language. Thus, human thinking, based on sensory experience, by means of comparison, assimilation, generalization, abstraction, transforms the sensory image, and fixes the results of the transformation in sign form.

The essence of the process of cognition is to obtain the most objective, complete and accurate knowledge about the surrounding world. Different schools of philosophy gave different answers to the question of the possibility of knowing the world and obtaining true knowledge. Agnostics believed that it was impossible to obtain reliable knowledge, empiricists believed that this could be done only with the help of sensations, and rationalists argued that only reason is the criterion of truth.

In the history of philosophy, there have been various definitions of the concept of "truth". The most frequently used is the following: truth is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge. characteristic feature truth is the presence in it of an objective and subjective side. The objective side shows us the truth in that part of it, the content of which does not depend on us, since it exists in objective reality. The subjective side points to the fact that in its form the truth is always subjective, since when it is received in the process of cognition, the interaction of the object and the subject of cognition takes place, in which the consciousness of the latter takes a direct part.
It is customary to single out absolute truth and relative truth. Absolute truth is called complete, unchanging, once and for all established knowledge about any subject or phenomenon. However, in reality, this is practically unattainable. In most cases, we are dealing with relative truth (or truths), which is incomplete, limited knowledge, true only under certain conditions, which a person (humanity) possesses at a given stage of its development.
The driving force of the process of cognition, as well as the criterion of truth, is practice. Moreover, this or that type of cognition has as a criterion of truth the form of practice corresponding to it: everyday practice, observation, experiment, etc. opportunities to rely on practice (for example, identifying logical contradictions in mathematical reasoning).

2. Crime, its types.

Criminal legal relations are relations between a criminal and the state regarding a crime regulated by the norms of criminal law.

The branch of Russian law that regulates relations that arise in connection with the commission of a crime is criminal law.

Criminal law is a set of legal norms established by the highest bodies of state power that determine the criminality and punishability of an act, the grounds for criminal liability, the goals and system of punishments, the general principles and conditions for their appointment, as well as the conditions for exemption from criminal liability and punishment.

No other branch of law regulates criminal law relations.

Sources of criminal law .

The only source of Russian criminal law is the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation (CC). The general principles and foundations of criminal law are established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

New laws providing for criminal liability should be included in the Criminal Code.

The rules of criminal proceedings are collected in the Code of Criminal Procedure (CPC RF).

What is a crime ?

A crime is a guilty socially dangerous act prohibited by the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation under the threat of punishment.

Classification of crimes .

According to the object of the crime :

1) crimes against a person;

2) crimes in the sphere of economy;

3) crimes against public safety and public order;

4) crimes against state power;

5) crimes against military service;

6) crimes against the peace and security of mankind.

By the nature and degree of public danger :

1) crimes of minor gravity (up to 2 years in prison);

2) crimes of medium gravity: reckless acts (more than 2 years in prison), intentional acts (up to 5 years in prison);

3) grave crimes (up to 10 years in prison);

4) especially serious crimes (over 10 years of imprisonment or more severe punishment).

Guilt is the mental attitude of a person to a crime committed by him, expressed in the form of intent or negligence. A prerequisite for guilt is the sanity of a person and the achievement of the age of criminal responsibility established by law.

Depending on the form of guilt, crimes are divided into intentional and committed through negligence.

Forms of guilt:

1) intentional with direct intent;

2) intentional with indirect intent;

3) careless due to frivolity;

4) careless due to negligence.

3. Criminal liability.

What is criminal liability ?

Criminal liability is a kind of legal liability as a duty of a person to answer (to suffer hardships provided for by law) for a crime committed.

This is the most stringent type of legal liability.

Signs of criminal liability:

1) the existence of a list of crimes for which criminal liability is possible;

2) classifying the act as a crime only on the basis of the law;

3) consideration of the criminal case only by the court;

4) special procedural order;

5) the possibility of applying preventive measures (a written undertaking not to leave, arrest, detention)

6) only an individual can be subjected (is of a personal nature);

7) variety and special severity of criminal punishment, extremely unfavorable consequences for the convict (imprisonment, life imprisonment, death penalty);

8) the presence of a special condition after serving a sentence that limits the legal status of a person - a criminal record.

Grounds for applying criminal liability :

1) Commitment by a person of a socially dangerous act containing all the elements of a crime ( factual basis);

2) the existence of criminal law norms that determine the content of the committed act and establish punishment for it ( legal basis).

Criminal liability arises from the moment a crime is committed, is implemented - from the moment a person is brought to justice, terminates - with an act of amnesty, pardon, with the removal or cancellation of a criminal record.

Types of criminal penalties.

Criminal punishment is a measure of state coercion. Appointed by a court verdict and provided for by the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation.

1) A fine is a monetary penalty.

2) Deprivation of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities.

3) Compulsory work - the performance by a convict in his free time of work of free socially useful work.

4) Correctional labor - are served at the place of work of the convict.

5) Confiscation of property - compulsory gratuitous seizure of all or part of the property that is the property of the convict into the ownership of the state.

6) Restriction of freedom - the detention of a convicted person in a special institution without isolation from society in the conditions of supervision over him.

7) Arrest - keeping the convict in conditions of strict isolation from society.

8) Deprivation of liberty for a certain period.

9) Life imprisonment.

10) The death penalty. In the Russian Federation, a moratorium has been imposed on the death penalty.

4. Criminal process.

What is a criminal process?

Criminal process (criminal proceedings) - activities for the investigation and resolution of criminal cases.

Participants (subjects) of the criminal process :

1) Members of the prosecution.

The court is either single-handed, or (for grave and especially grave crimes) composed of three judges or with the participation of jurors.

The body of inquiry, the interrogator conduct an inquiry (urgent investigative actions) and an investigation in simple cases.

The investigator conducts a preliminary, i.e. prejudicial investigation.

The prosecutor oversees the investigation and inquiry and supports the prosecution at trial.

The victim speaks on behalf of the prosecution, i.e. person harmed by the crime.

2) Defense members.

Suspect, i.e. a person suspected of a crime.

The rights of the suspect: filing a petition, refusing to testify, contacting a defense lawyer.

The accused is the person who has been charged.

Rights of the accused : meeting alone with the defense counsel in case of arrest, familiarization with the case after the completion of the investigation, obtaining an indictment.

The accused after the transfer of the case to the court is called the defendant and has equal rights with the accuser.

Defender - a person who protects the rights and legitimate interests of the suspect, accused or defendant.

3) Facilitators of the process: witnesses, experts, specialists, translators, witnesses.

Principles of criminal procedure :

1) the principle of legality (Article 15 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 7 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

2) the principle of administration of justice only by the court (Articles 47, 118 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 8 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

3) the principle of respect for the honor and dignity of the individual (Article 21 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 9 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

4) inviolability of the person (Article 22 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 10 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

5) protection of the rights and freedoms of man and citizen in criminal proceedings (Articles 2, 45, 46, 51, 52, 53 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 11 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

6) inviolability of the home (Article 25 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 12 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

7) secrecy of correspondence, telephone and other conversations, sentry, telegraph and other messages (Article 23 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 13 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

8) presumption of innocence (Article 49 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 14 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

9) competitiveness of the parties (Article 23 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 15 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

Competitiveness and equality of the parties :

1. the functions of accusation, defense and resolution of a criminal case are separated from each other; they cannot be assigned to the same body or the same official;

2. examination of evidence is carried out by the parties of the prosecution (public prosecutor, victim, civil plaintiff and their representatives) and defense (defender, civil defendant and his representative);

3. The parties to the prosecution and defense have equal rights before the court to file challenges and motions, present evidence, participate in their study, speak in the parties' debates, and submit written statements to the court on the issues specified in paragraphs 1-6 of part 1 of Art. 299 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation, for consideration of other issues arising in the course of the trial;

4. the court is not a body of criminal prosecution, does not act on the side of the prosecution or the side of the defense;

5. the court creates the necessary conditions for the parties to fulfill their procedural obligations and the exercise of the rights granted to them, and also resolves a criminal case.

10) providing the suspect and the accused with the right to defense (Article 48 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 16 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

11) freedom of assessment of evidence (Article 120 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 17 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

12) the language of criminal proceedings (Article 26 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 18 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

13) the right to appeal against procedural actions and decisions (Articles 45, 46 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 19 of the Code of Criminal Procedure).

Evidence in criminal proceedings :

1) testimony of the accused, victim, witness, expert;

2 things;

3) protocols of investigative and judicial actions;

4) audio and video recordings.

One confession of the accused is not enough. It is evaluated only in conjunction with other evidence and circumstances of the case.

Stages of the criminal process .

Pre-trial proceedings .

1) Initiation of a criminal case: reason (statement of a crime, confession); grounds (availability of sufficient data pointing to the crime); registration (decision on the initiation of a criminal case).

2) Preliminary investigation (inquiry, investigation):

* investigative actions are carried out by order of the investigator (interrogation, confrontation, identification, seizure of documents) or on the basis of a court decision (custody, house arrest, search, establishment of control and recording of telephone and other conversations);

* prosecution of a person(decree on involvement as an accused, presentation of pre-trial charges, familiarization of the accused with the case);

* closing indictment(compiled by the investigator and sent to the prosecutor's office);

* verification of investigative materials by the prosecutor.

Court proceedings .

1) Preparation for the court session (preliminary hearing).

The judge must decide whether to order a preliminary hearing, remand, stay or dismiss the case or try it with a jury or set a trial.

2) Trial:

* preparatory stage (the judge checks the turnout, resolves petitions);

* judicial investigation (statement by the prosecutor of the indictment, interrogation of the defendant, interrogation of witnesses);

* debate of the parties, remarks of the parties;

* the last word of the defendant;

* pronouncement of judgment.

3) Proceedings in the court of second instance take place in the order of appeal and cassation appeals judicial decisions that have not entered into force.

4) Execution of the sentence.